Literature Review: Effective Online Instructional Design for the Older Adult
Completed: March 09, 2008
Author: Mary Burns Prine
Introduction
Lifelong learner is a phrase used to describe the older adult (aged 55 and over) student. Understanding that learning continues throughout life, older adults have begun more than ever to advance their educational objectives. With a population of seniors who are better educated, healthier and more affluent, the educational opportunities are soaring. Computer technology and the growth of online instruction have increased the learning opportunities for older adults. This literature review will look at the special needs of the older learner and how they can be used in creating effective design for older adult coursework.
There is an abundance of literature which reflects the benefits of learning to the older adult. Educational activities have been shown to increase social interaction (Dorin, 2007; Ng, 2008) and to decrease feelings of isolation and depression (Dorin, 2007, Bertera, E., Bertera, R., et al,. 2007; McConatha,J., McConatha D., et al 1995)). With learning, the older adult becomes empowered (Bertera, 2007), with improvements in self worth, self esteem, feelings of achievement and a greater control over their environment (Bertera, 2007; Chaffin & Harlow, 2005; Ng, 2008; Dorin, 2007). Education has improved mental capacities (Dorin, 2007; McContatha, 1995), ability to perform the activities of daily living (McConatha, 1995) and lifetime satisfaction (McConatha,1995; Dorin, 2007). Lifelong learners have more involvement in their lives, less stress, and have an increased ability to problem solve (Chaffin, 2005; McConatha, 1995; Dorin, 2007).
Challenges to Effective Instructional Design for Older Adults
There are many challenges to overcome when developing an instructional program for the older adult. One such challenge is the physical changes which incur with aging. An older adult may be facing visual or auditory changes which may affect the learning platform (Freudenthal, 2001) as well as decreases in motor performance (Mead, Batsakes et al 1999) and mobility (Purdie & Boulton-Lewis, 2003). In addition to the constant changes, an older adult is faced daily with immediate challenges to their learning success, such as illness and low blood sugar (Zajicek, 2002).
Some of the challenges that the older learner faces are not related to the design of the teaching platform. These are things which must be addressed by the facilitator of the education site, such as proper lighting, temperature of the room, ergonomic seating, and a magnified screen (Boechler, Foth, et al, 2007; Chaffin 2005). Beyond the control of the site would be the transportation challenge, and how to coordinate successful travel to and from the class site (Purdie, 2003). A program which is taken in the residence of the learner will alleviate such challenges.
Quite often in the literature, the concept of digital divide was introduced (Purdie, 2003; Chaffin, 2005; Morrell, Park et al, 2000). This term refers to the lack of background knowledge and understanding of basic technology. As technology improves, the older adult is left behind to struggle with a constantly changing world. Other sources refer to computer anxiety (Boechler, 2007; Chaffin, 2005; Ng, 2008) which is characterized by fear of using the computer. Both of these are very real challenges to the older adult, which will not be overcome without a successful instructional intervention.
By far, the most common challenge discussed was the cognitive changes that accompany aging. Cognitive changes mentioned included a decrease in working memory (Boechler,. 2007; Paas, Camp et al, 2001; Pascal 2006; Salthouse, 1991), a decrease in cognitive processing speed (Boechler, 2007; Freudenthal, 2001; Morrell, 1993; Paas, 2001; Pascal, 2003; Salthouse, 1991), a decrease in memory function (Boechler, 2007; Freudenthal, 2001), and a decrease in fluid memory (Zajicek, 2002). The older adult will find it harder to perform tasks as complexity of task increases (Fisk, 2004), and could be experiencing a decrease in concentration skills (Purdie, 2003).
Cognitive functions are also affected by aging. Among the tasks which become more challenging is the ability to update information, to inhibit irrelevant information and to shift between tasks (Fisk 2004; Pascal, 2006). Also mentioned was the decrease in episodic memory (Mead, 1999). Due to the cognitive changes, the older learner requires more time and practice to achieve success (Bertera, 2007).
Learning goals of the older adult
The older adult will approach learning from a different perspective, and will have different goals than that of the younger learner. Questionnaires distributed to 160 older adults (over 70 years old) in the community attempted to identify the goals of the older adult learner (Purdie, 2003). The needs and goals which were identified most strongly included transportation, medication, safety and household services. Moderately ranked goals included lifestyle adjustments, financial issues, communication needs, and personal enrichment. Lowest ranking goals included computer and technology issues (Purdie, 2003).
Besides recognizing that the learning needs are different for the older adult, the literature dealt also with the emotional and psychological goals of education. Among the positive goals of learning was a decrease in isolation with an increase in independence (Chaffin, 2005; McConatha, 1995; Ng, 2008; Walker, 1998). The older learner seeks an increase in self efficacy (Ardelt, 2000; Cusak, 1994; Walker, 1998) and problem solving abilities (McConatha, 1995; Ng, 2008). They may be looking for acceptance in a life perceived to be out of their control (Ardelt, 2000). They may also wish to increase their critical inquiry skills, express themselves more effectively and improve their self esteem (Cusak, 1994). They may want to feel more prepared for changes in their life (Ardelt, 2000) or to feel empowered (Cusak, 1994).
The older adult may have different reasons for education. The older adult may look to education for survival, adjustment to changes in lifestyle or discovery (Chaffin, 2005). Before embarking on the design of the program, it is important to look at the target for which the class is to be developed and design the program around that target audience (Cusak, 1994; Mead, 1999; Morrell, 1993; Zajicek, 2002).
By understanding the needs and goals of the older adult learner, the resulting instructional design can contribute to meeting the specific needs of the learner.
Effective Design for the Older Learner
A well designed instructional program can help to create a meaningful and pertinent environment for the older learner. By considering the needs, goals and challenges to the older adult, some practical suggestions can be made.
First and foremost would be simplicity. A well designed class for older adults is simple in language (Bertera, 2007; Boechler, 2007; Pascal, 2006; Zajicek, 2002), instruction (Morrell, 2000) and in menu development (Freudenthal, 2001). It is presented in a meaningful context (Dori, 2007) with an emphasis on prior knowledge (Chaffin, 2005; Pascal, 2006). To accommodate visual challenges, font is large and can be easily magnified (Boechler, 2007). When designing hyperlinks, the designer may consider using an area cursor instead of the standard cursor. It may also benefit the older learner to include sticky icons which slow the cursor speed as it approaches an active interface (Mead, 1999). Information should be released in chunks to teach parts before whole (Paas, 2001; Pascal, 2003). Pacing should be self paced and there should be immediate reinforcement (Pascal 2006). Only relevant sound and visuals should be used (Pascal 2006).
The Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) is based on the assumption that the working memory is limited and that there are visual and auditive channels which interact with the working memory and the long term memory (Paas, 2001; Pascal, 2006; Pascal, 2003). The theory suggests that working memory load can be decreased by chunking information, by developing automated ways to perform a task and to use both visual and auditory information. All of these will work to decrease the load on working memory, drawing instead from the unlimited long term memory (Paas, 2001), which will enhance the learning experience and memory usage of the older adult.
The principles of CLT dictate additional ways that instructional design can be enhanced for the older learner. To decrease visual search, text should be near images, key points should be highlighted and narration should occur simultaneously with visual (Pascal, 2006). Delivery of material should include several modes (text, illustrations and sound) (Morrell, 2000; Pascal, 2006). Multimedia can be very effective with the older adult to lessen the load of the working memory (Pascal, 2003; Zajicek, 2002).
To accommodate different learning backgrounds and comfort with technology, learner involvement should span from passive to active (Chaffin, 2005). When possible, learning should focus on action and performance instead of context (Mead, 1999). Learners can be allowed to collaborate in the development of materials as well as the evaluation and individual capacities should always be respected (Cusak, 1994; Ng, 2008).
Problem solving can be an effective means of subject delivery. Traditionally, the act of problem solving involves a problem, a goal, and a transformation of the problem state to the goal state. This transformation is referred to as a means-end analysis. Pass (20001) rationalized that learning was comprised of both the means-ends analysis and a cognitive idea, and that these were independent of each other. His research found that a goal free task was more easily performed by the older adult (Paas 2001). Along this line of reasoning, Pascal (2001) found that worked examples were more effective for the older learner than examples with no solutions.
A major problem faced by the older learner is background knowledge. This can be alleviated by prior specification of foreknowledge necessary, as well as presenting a way to tie existing knowledge with relevant knowledge about the task (Freudenthal, 2001; Kubeck, 1999). It is also important to teach skills necessary to achieve the learning goal (Kubeck, 1999; Pascal, 2003).
A successful older learner is one who was successful in the initial training, and one who perceives learning as fun and interesting (Kelley, Morrell et al 1999). The learner must have sufficient motivation (Morrell, 1993). Many sources recommended an instructional format that included the instruction of technical skills needed to attain proficiency in online and computer based instruction (Kelley, 1999; Morrell, 1993; Kubeck, 1999; Pascal, 2006; Mead, 1999).
Conclusion
Learning is important to all ages, and especially to the older adult. A quality instructional program will take into account the challenges of the older learner. Although there are currently a number of tools available to aid learners with visual and hearing impairments, the question of cognitive function is rarely addressed in instructional design. This review looked at existing research into the aging learner and suggested some areas in which to proceed.
With aging, cognitive functioning slows, and the working memory can become overloaded. Effective design will include methods of information delivery (chunking) and presentation (large fonts, illustrations with text). Visual and auditory channels will be optimized with bimodal instruction (visual, sound and animations) optimized to eliminate visual searching. Instructions should be simple, and presented in a context familiar to the learner. A design which offers a worked example as well as a goal free task will minimize the effort of the working memory.
Additional areas should be considered when developing appropriate learning materials for the older adult. One area is the content to be taught. Collaboration can be empowering to the older adult, and may increase the value of the educational material to the learner. Future content to the older adult should be relevant to their lives, interesting and/ or offer them a chance to reflect on their lives. By questioning older adults and allowing them a voice in course selection, they can own the class and be more involved in the learning process.
Another area which requires further research is the use of other forms of technology with the older adult. The older adult may be experiencing digital divide (a separation from the majority of the community which is comfortable with technology). By right, the older adult should embrace the changes that a technologically evolving nation can present, and flourish within the possibilities offered by such technology. Future research should look at ways to present technology so that it is pertinent, understood and used by older adults to enhance and improve the quality of their lives.
We are facing a brigade of older adults in the retired community. Many of them will enjoy years of retired living. It is our obligation as educators to create meaningful and pertinent learning opportunities, in order to preserve and feed the mind of the older adult. References
Ardelt, M.(2000). Intellectual Versus Wisdom-Related Knowledge: The Case for a Different
Kind of Learning in the Later Years of Life. Educational Gerontology, 26(9), 771-789.
Austin-Wells, V., Zimmerman, T., McDougall, G.J.(2003) An Optimal Delivery Format for
Presentations Targeting Older Adults. Educational Gerontology, 29(6), 493-501.
Bertera, E.M., Bertera, R.L., Morgan, R., Wuertz, E., Attey, A.M. (2007). Training Older Adults
to Access Health Information. Educational Gerontology, 33(6), 483-500.
Boechler, P.M., Foth, D., Watchom, R. (2007). Educational Technology Research with Older
Adults: Adjustments in Protocol, Materials and Procedures. Educational Gerontology, 33(3),
221-235.
Chaffin, A. J., Harlow, S.D. (2005). Cognitive Learning Applied to Older Adult Learners and
Technology. Educational Gerontology, 31(4), 301-329.
Cusak, S.A. (1994). Developing a Lifelong Learning Program: Empowering Seniors as
Leaders in Lifelong Learning. Presented at the 40th Annual Meeting of American Society on Aging, San Francisco, March, 1994.
Dorin, M. (2007). Online Education of Older Adults and its Relationship to Life Satisfaction. Educational Gerontology, 33(2), 127-143.
Fisk, J.E., and Sharp, C.A. (2004). Age-Related Impairment in Executive Functioning: Updating,
Inhibition, Shifting, and Access. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology,
26(7), 874-890.
Freudenthal, D. (2001). Age Differences in the Performance of Information Retrieval Tasks. Behavior & Information Technology, 20 (1), 9-22.
Freudenthal, D. (2001). The Role of Age, Foreknowledge and Complexity in Learning to
Operate a Complex Devise. Behavior & Information Technology, 20(1), 23-35.
Kelley, C.L., Morrell, R.W., Park, D., Mayhorn, C.B. (1999). Predictors of Electronic
Bulletin Board System Use in Older Adults. Educational Gerontology, 25(1),
19- 35.
Kubeck, J.E., Miller-Albrecht, S.A., Murphy, M.D. (1999). Finding Information on the World
Wide Web: Exploring Older Adults’ Exploration. Educational Gerontology, 25(2),
167 – 183.
McConatha, J.T., McConatha, D., Deaner, S.L., Dermigny, R. (1995). A Computer-Based
Intervention for the Education and Therapy of Institutionalized Older Adults. Educational Gerontology 21(2), 129-138.
Mead, S.E., Batsakes, P., Fisk, A., & Mykityshyn, A. (1999). Application of Cognitive Theory
to Training and Design Solutions for Age-related Computer Use. International
Journal of Behavioral Development, 23(3), 553-573.
Morrell, R.W., Park, D.C., Mayhorn, C.B., & Kelley, C.L. (2000). Effects of Age and
Instructions on Teaching Older Adults to use Eldercomm, An Electronic
Bulletin Board System. Educational Gerontology, 26 (3), 221-235.
Morrell, R.W. & Park, D.C.(1993). The Effects of Age, Illustrations, and Task Variables on
the Performance of Procedural Assembly Tasks. Psychology and Aging, 8(3), 389-399.
Ng, C. (2008). Motivation Among Older Adults in Learning Computing Technologies:
A Grounded Model. Educational Gerontologist, 34(1), 1-14.
Paas, F., Camp, G., & Rikers, R. (2001). Instructional Compensation for Age-Related
Cognitive Declines: Effects of Goal Specificity in Maze Learning. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 93 (1), 181-186.
Pascal, W.M.V., Paas, F., & Tabbers, H.(2006). Cognitive Aging and Computer-Based
Instructional Design: Where Do We Go From Here? Educational Psychology Review,
18(1), 141-157.
Pascal, W.M.V., Paas, F., Van Merrienboer, J.J.G., Hendriks, M., & Schmidt, H.G. (2003). The
Efficiency of Multimedia Learning into Old Age. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 73(4), 489 – 505.
Purdie, N., & Boulton-Lewis, G. (2003). The Learning Needs of Older Adults. Educational
Gerontology, 29 (1), 129-149.
Salthouse, T.A. (1991). Mediation of Adult Age Differences in Cognition By Reductions
in Working Memory and Speed of Processing. Psychological Science, 2(3), 179-183.
Walker, J. (1998). Mapping the Learning of Older Adults. Adults Learning. Retrieved March 6
2008, from EBSCO Host Research database.
Zajicek, M. (2002). Software Design for Older Adults to Support Memory Loss. Paper
Presented to 5th ACM/SIFAPH Conference on Assistive Technologies, Edinburgh,
April, 2002.
Literature Review: Effective Online Instructional Design for the Older Adult
Completed: March 09, 2008
Author: Mary Burns Prine
Introduction
Lifelong learner is a phrase used to describe the older adult (aged 55 and over) student. Understanding that learning continues throughout life, older adults have begun more than ever to advance their educational objectives. With a population of seniors who are better educated, healthier and more affluent, the educational opportunities are soaring. Computer technology and the growth of online instruction have increased the learning opportunities for older adults. This literature review will look at the special needs of the older learner and how they can be used in creating effective design for older adult coursework.
There is an abundance of literature which reflects the benefits of learning to the older adult. Educational activities have been shown to increase social interaction (Dorin, 2007; Ng, 2008) and to decrease feelings of isolation and depression (Dorin, 2007, Bertera, E., Bertera, R., et al,. 2007; McConatha,J., McConatha D., et al 1995)). With learning, the older adult becomes empowered (Bertera, 2007), with improvements in self worth, self esteem, feelings of achievement and a greater control over their environment (Bertera, 2007; Chaffin & Harlow, 2005; Ng, 2008; Dorin, 2007). Education has improved mental capacities (Dorin, 2007; McContatha, 1995), ability to perform the activities of daily living (McConatha, 1995) and lifetime satisfaction (McConatha,1995; Dorin, 2007). Lifelong learners have more involvement in their lives, less stress, and have an increased ability to problem solve (Chaffin, 2005; McConatha, 1995; Dorin, 2007).
Challenges to Effective Instructional Design for Older Adults
There are many challenges to overcome when developing an instructional program for the older adult. One such challenge is the physical changes which incur with aging. An older adult may be facing visual or auditory changes which may affect the learning platform (Freudenthal, 2001) as well as decreases in motor performance (Mead, Batsakes et al 1999) and mobility (Purdie & Boulton-Lewis, 2003). In addition to the constant changes, an older adult is faced daily with immediate challenges to their learning success, such as illness and low blood sugar (Zajicek, 2002).
Some of the challenges that the older learner faces are not related to the design of the teaching platform. These are things which must be addressed by the facilitator of the education site, such as proper lighting, temperature of the room, ergonomic seating, and a magnified screen (Boechler, Foth, et al, 2007; Chaffin 2005). Beyond the control of the site would be the transportation challenge, and how to coordinate successful travel to and from the class site (Purdie, 2003). A program which is taken in the residence of the learner will alleviate such challenges.
Quite often in the literature, the concept of digital divide was introduced (Purdie, 2003; Chaffin, 2005; Morrell, Park et al, 2000). This term refers to the lack of background knowledge and understanding of basic technology. As technology improves, the older adult is left behind to struggle with a constantly changing world. Other sources refer to computer anxiety (Boechler, 2007; Chaffin, 2005; Ng, 2008) which is characterized by fear of using the computer. Both of these are very real challenges to the older adult, which will not be overcome without a successful instructional intervention.
By far, the most common challenge discussed was the cognitive changes that accompany aging. Cognitive changes mentioned included a decrease in working memory (Boechler,. 2007; Paas, Camp et al, 2001; Pascal 2006; Salthouse, 1991), a decrease in cognitive processing speed (Boechler, 2007; Freudenthal, 2001; Morrell, 1993; Paas, 2001; Pascal, 2003; Salthouse, 1991), a decrease in memory function (Boechler, 2007; Freudenthal, 2001), and a decrease in fluid memory (Zajicek, 2002). The older adult will find it harder to perform tasks as complexity of task increases (Fisk, 2004), and could be experiencing a decrease in concentration skills (Purdie, 2003).
Cognitive functions are also affected by aging. Among the tasks which become more challenging is the ability to update information, to inhibit irrelevant information and to shift between tasks (Fisk 2004; Pascal, 2006). Also mentioned was the decrease in episodic memory (Mead, 1999). Due to the cognitive changes, the older learner requires more time and practice to achieve success (Bertera, 2007).
Learning goals of the older adult
The older adult will approach learning from a different perspective, and will have different goals than that of the younger learner. Questionnaires distributed to 160 older adults (over 70 years old) in the community attempted to identify the goals of the older adult learner (Purdie, 2003). The needs and goals which were identified most strongly included transportation, medication, safety and household services. Moderately ranked goals included lifestyle adjustments, financial issues, communication needs, and personal enrichment. Lowest ranking goals included computer and technology issues (Purdie, 2003).
Besides recognizing that the learning needs are different for the older adult, the literature dealt also with the emotional and psychological goals of education. Among the positive goals of learning was a decrease in isolation with an increase in independence (Chaffin, 2005; McConatha, 1995; Ng, 2008; Walker, 1998). The older learner seeks an increase in self efficacy (Ardelt, 2000; Cusak, 1994; Walker, 1998) and problem solving abilities (McConatha, 1995; Ng, 2008). They may be looking for acceptance in a life perceived to be out of their control (Ardelt, 2000). They may also wish to increase their critical inquiry skills, express themselves more effectively and improve their self esteem (Cusak, 1994). They may want to feel more prepared for changes in their life (Ardelt, 2000) or to feel empowered (Cusak, 1994).
The older adult may have different reasons for education. The older adult may look to education for survival, adjustment to changes in lifestyle or discovery (Chaffin, 2005). Before embarking on the design of the program, it is important to look at the target for which the class is to be developed and design the program around that target audience (Cusak, 1994; Mead, 1999; Morrell, 1993; Zajicek, 2002).
By understanding the needs and goals of the older adult learner, the resulting instructional design can contribute to meeting the specific needs of the learner.
Effective Design for the Older Learner
A well designed instructional program can help to create a meaningful and pertinent environment for the older learner. By considering the needs, goals and challenges to the older adult, some practical suggestions can be made.
First and foremost would be simplicity. A well designed class for older adults is simple in language (Bertera, 2007; Boechler, 2007; Pascal, 2006; Zajicek, 2002), instruction (Morrell, 2000) and in menu development (Freudenthal, 2001). It is presented in a meaningful context (Dori, 2007) with an emphasis on prior knowledge (Chaffin, 2005; Pascal, 2006). To accommodate visual challenges, font is large and can be easily magnified (Boechler, 2007). When designing hyperlinks, the designer may consider using an area cursor instead of the standard cursor. It may also benefit the older learner to include sticky icons which slow the cursor speed as it approaches an active interface (Mead, 1999). Information should be released in chunks to teach parts before whole (Paas, 2001; Pascal, 2003). Pacing should be self paced and there should be immediate reinforcement (Pascal 2006). Only relevant sound and visuals should be used (Pascal 2006).
The Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) is based on the assumption that the working memory is limited and that there are visual and auditive channels which interact with the working memory and the long term memory (Paas, 2001; Pascal, 2006; Pascal, 2003). The theory suggests that working memory load can be decreased by chunking information, by developing automated ways to perform a task and to use both visual and auditory information. All of these will work to decrease the load on working memory, drawing instead from the unlimited long term memory (Paas, 2001), which will enhance the learning experience and memory usage of the older adult.
The principles of CLT dictate additional ways that instructional design can be enhanced for the older learner. To decrease visual search, text should be near images, key points should be highlighted and narration should occur simultaneously with visual (Pascal, 2006). Delivery of material should include several modes (text, illustrations and sound) (Morrell, 2000; Pascal, 2006). Multimedia can be very effective with the older adult to lessen the load of the working memory (Pascal, 2003; Zajicek, 2002).
To accommodate different learning backgrounds and comfort with technology, learner involvement should span from passive to active (Chaffin, 2005). When possible, learning should focus on action and performance instead of context (Mead, 1999). Learners can be allowed to collaborate in the development of materials as well as the evaluation and individual capacities should always be respected (Cusak, 1994; Ng, 2008).
Problem solving can be an effective means of subject delivery. Traditionally, the act of problem solving involves a problem, a goal, and a transformation of the problem state to the goal state. This transformation is referred to as a means-end analysis. Pass (20001) rationalized that learning was comprised of both the means-ends analysis and a cognitive idea, and that these were independent of each other. His research found that a goal free task was more easily performed by the older adult (Paas 2001). Along this line of reasoning, Pascal (2001) found that worked examples were more effective for the older learner than examples with no solutions.
A major problem faced by the older learner is background knowledge. This can be alleviated by prior specification of foreknowledge necessary, as well as presenting a way to tie existing knowledge with relevant knowledge about the task (Freudenthal, 2001; Kubeck, 1999). It is also important to teach skills necessary to achieve the learning goal (Kubeck, 1999; Pascal, 2003).
A successful older learner is one who was successful in the initial training, and one who perceives learning as fun and interesting (Kelley, Morrell et al 1999). The learner must have sufficient motivation (Morrell, 1993). Many sources recommended an instructional format that included the instruction of technical skills needed to attain proficiency in online and computer based instruction (Kelley, 1999; Morrell, 1993; Kubeck, 1999; Pascal, 2006; Mead, 1999).
Conclusion
Learning is important to all ages, and especially to the older adult. A quality instructional program will take into account the challenges of the older learner. Although there are currently a number of tools available to aid learners with visual and hearing impairments, the question of cognitive function is rarely addressed in instructional design. This review looked at existing research into the aging learner and suggested some areas in which to proceed.
With aging, cognitive functioning slows, and the working memory can become overloaded. Effective design will include methods of information delivery (chunking) and presentation (large fonts, illustrations with text). Visual and auditory channels will be optimized with bimodal instruction (visual, sound and animations) optimized to eliminate visual searching. Instructions should be simple, and presented in a context familiar to the learner. A design which offers a worked example as well as a goal free task will minimize the effort of the working memory.
Additional areas should be considered when developing appropriate learning materials for the older adult. One area is the content to be taught. Collaboration can be empowering to the older adult, and may increase the value of the educational material to the learner. Future content to the older adult should be relevant to their lives, interesting and/ or offer them a chance to reflect on their lives. By questioning older adults and allowing them a voice in course selection, they can own the class and be more involved in the learning process.
Another area which requires further research is the use of other forms of technology with the older adult. The older adult may be experiencing digital divide (a separation from the majority of the community which is comfortable with technology). By right, the older adult should embrace the changes that a technologically evolving nation can present, and flourish within the possibilities offered by such technology. Future research should look at ways to present technology so that it is pertinent, understood and used by older adults to enhance and improve the quality of their lives.
We are facing a brigade of older adults in the retired community. Many of them will enjoy years of retired living. It is our obligation as educators to create meaningful and pertinent learning opportunities, in order to preserve and feed the mind of the older adult.
References
Ardelt, M.(2000). Intellectual Versus Wisdom-Related Knowledge: The Case for a Different
Kind of Learning in the Later Years of Life. Educational Gerontology, 26(9), 771-789.
Austin-Wells, V., Zimmerman, T., McDougall, G.J.(2003) An Optimal Delivery Format for
Presentations Targeting Older Adults. Educational Gerontology, 29(6), 493-501.
Bertera, E.M., Bertera, R.L., Morgan, R., Wuertz, E., Attey, A.M. (2007). Training Older Adults
to Access Health Information. Educational Gerontology, 33(6), 483-500.
Boechler, P.M., Foth, D., Watchom, R. (2007). Educational Technology Research with Older
Adults: Adjustments in Protocol, Materials and Procedures. Educational Gerontology, 33(3),
221-235.
Chaffin, A. J., Harlow, S.D. (2005). Cognitive Learning Applied to Older Adult Learners and
Technology. Educational Gerontology, 31(4), 301-329.
Cusak, S.A. (1994). Developing a Lifelong Learning Program: Empowering Seniors as
Leaders in Lifelong Learning. Presented at the 40th Annual Meeting of American Society
on Aging, San Francisco, March, 1994.
Dorin, M. (2007). Online Education of Older Adults and its Relationship to Life Satisfaction.
Educational Gerontology, 33(2), 127-143.
Fisk, J.E., and Sharp, C.A. (2004). Age-Related Impairment in Executive Functioning: Updating,
Inhibition, Shifting, and Access. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology,
26(7), 874-890.
Freudenthal, D. (2001). Age Differences in the Performance of Information Retrieval Tasks.
Behavior & Information Technology, 20 (1), 9-22.
Freudenthal, D. (2001). The Role of Age, Foreknowledge and Complexity in Learning to
Operate a Complex Devise. Behavior & Information Technology, 20(1), 23-35.
Kelley, C.L., Morrell, R.W., Park, D., Mayhorn, C.B. (1999). Predictors of Electronic
Bulletin Board System Use in Older Adults. Educational Gerontology, 25(1),
19- 35.
Kubeck, J.E., Miller-Albrecht, S.A., Murphy, M.D. (1999). Finding Information on the World
Wide Web: Exploring Older Adults’ Exploration. Educational Gerontology, 25(2),
167 – 183.
McConatha, J.T., McConatha, D., Deaner, S.L., Dermigny, R. (1995). A Computer-Based
Intervention for the Education and Therapy of Institutionalized Older Adults.
Educational Gerontology 21(2), 129-138.
Mead, S.E., Batsakes, P., Fisk, A., & Mykityshyn, A. (1999). Application of Cognitive Theory
to Training and Design Solutions for Age-related Computer Use. International
Journal of Behavioral Development, 23(3), 553-573.
Morrell, R.W., Park, D.C., Mayhorn, C.B., & Kelley, C.L. (2000). Effects of Age and
Instructions on Teaching Older Adults to use Eldercomm, An Electronic
Bulletin Board System. Educational Gerontology, 26 (3), 221-235.
Morrell, R.W. & Park, D.C.(1993). The Effects of Age, Illustrations, and Task Variables on
the Performance of Procedural Assembly Tasks. Psychology and Aging, 8(3), 389-399.
Ng, C. (2008). Motivation Among Older Adults in Learning Computing Technologies:
A Grounded Model. Educational Gerontologist, 34(1), 1-14.
Paas, F., Camp, G., & Rikers, R. (2001). Instructional Compensation for Age-Related
Cognitive Declines: Effects of Goal Specificity in Maze Learning. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 93 (1), 181-186.
Pascal, W.M.V., Paas, F., & Tabbers, H.(2006). Cognitive Aging and Computer-Based
Instructional Design: Where Do We Go From Here? Educational Psychology Review,
18(1), 141-157.
Pascal, W.M.V., Paas, F., Van Merrienboer, J.J.G., Hendriks, M., & Schmidt, H.G. (2003). The
Efficiency of Multimedia Learning into Old Age. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 73(4), 489 – 505.
Purdie, N., & Boulton-Lewis, G. (2003). The Learning Needs of Older Adults. Educational
Gerontology, 29 (1), 129-149.
Salthouse, T.A. (1991). Mediation of Adult Age Differences in Cognition By Reductions
in Working Memory and Speed of Processing. Psychological Science, 2(3), 179-183.
Walker, J. (1998). Mapping the Learning of Older Adults. Adults Learning. Retrieved March 6
2008, from EBSCO Host Research database.
Zajicek, M. (2002). Software Design for Older Adults to Support Memory Loss. Paper
Presented to 5th ACM/SIFAPH Conference on Assistive Technologies, Edinburgh,
April, 2002.